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- Physiology: Several physiological characteristics of Johnsongrass aid in its spread. Mature Johnsongrass plants are moderately drought resistant [6] and salt tolerant [207]. Johnsongrass produces toxins (see Toxicity) that may be allelopathic [96,135,196]. - Source: Internet
- Moisture regime: Although Johnsongrass occurs in wet to dry habitats in its native range in southern Europe [184], it is generally restricted to wet or mesic sites in the United States [72,93,201]. It is most common in warm, humid southern climates that receive ample summer rainfall. Johnsongrass is a facultative wetland species, frequently occurring on floodplains [18,19]. Johnsongrass patches are often extensive along canals and irrigation ditches [96]. In arid sites such as Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument, Arizona, Johnsongrass establishes mostly in wet locations including washes, drainages, and stream edges [61,177]. - Source: Internet
- Biomass and height of Johnsongrass seedlings Date (1959) Days after emergence Green weight (g) Height (in) Rhizome length (ft) Leaves Rhizomes Roots Seedhead May 20 20 12 2 3 —-* 12 —- May 27 27 190 30 30 —- 23 <1 June 15 46 690 90 100 —- 52 7 July 1 62 1990 750 220 180 74 35 Sept. 1 124 2950 5050 360 500 74 153 Sept. 29 152 3140 8070 430 680 74 212 Biomass and height of Johnsongrass rhizome sprouts May 20 19 9 3 3 —- 9 —- May 27 26 80 14 20 —- 13 <1 June 3 33 530 100 40 —- 30 1 June 15 45 610 110 130 —- 47 5 June 19 49 590 310 160 9 70 9 June 24 54 950 220 160 74 72 14 *Not present. - Source: Internet
- Asexual regeneration : Once a population of Johnsongrass is established, most population growth is from asexual regeneration by rhizomes [96]. Throughout most of their North American range, Johnsongrass populations are strongly rhizomatous [49,71,122,184,201]. Some Johnsongrass populations are weakly rhizomatous or nonrhizomatous, especially at the species’ distributional limits [61,197,198]. Rhizome expression in Johnsongrass is apparently controlled by multiple, dominant genes, resulting in variable degrees of rhizome development in both Johnsongrass and its hybrids [209]. Extreme temperatures also inhibit Johnsongrass’s ability to produce rhizomes [85,175]. - Source: Internet
- Old fields: Johnsongrass is particularly common on old bottomland fields in the South [3,17,18]. Unlike most crop weeds, which tend to decrease in the absence of irrigation and fertilization, Johnsongrass tends to persist on abandoned fields. For example, in Georgia it was prevalent in 1-, 4-, and 8-year-old fertilized crop fields, but was also prevalent in 8-year-old fallow fields [139]. - Source: Internet
- Fire regimes: As of this writing (2004), there was no published information on how North American fire regimes affect Johnsongrass. In riparian and other areas where Johnsongrass is highly productive, Johnsongrass may promote fire spread by increasing fine fuel loads above historical levels. Studies are needed on the fire ecology of Johnsongrass in North American. - Source: Internet
- Spot burning with a gas torch was once a widely practiced method of controlling patches of Johnsongrass. It is rarely used today due to cost restraints [127], but may be useful in riparian or other areas where spot control is needed. In Arizona, a Johnsongrass infestation along a canal bank was controlled by torching plants with a propane burner. Eleven burnings at 2-week intervals controlled top growth. No regrowth of Johnsongrass occurred the following season [86]. - Source: Internet
- Herbicide treatments greatly decreased Johnsongrass cover in an Illinois bottomland old field. Restoration treatments included tillage, pre- or postemergent herbicide applications (sulfometuron or glyphosate, respectively), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) plantings. Tillage had no significant impact on Johnsongrass cover. Mean Johnsongrass cover (%) was significantly lower after the 1st postspray year [76]: - Source: Internet
- Postemergent herbicides are the most common method of Johnsongrass control in agricultural systems, and are probably the best herbicide choice for wildland settings as well, since postemergent herbicides cause less damage to nontarget species. In a Maryland old-field study, foliar application of postemergence herbicide (DPX-V9360) was more effective in late-growth stages (>5 leaves) than early-growth stages (<5 leaves) when rhizomes had not fully expanded [138]. Rosales-Robles and others [158] discuss the relative effectiveness of several postemergent herbicides as influenced by application rate and Johnsongrass growth stage. Application procedures for postemergent herbicides effective on Johnsongrass are given in these publications: [20,51,119,208]. - Source: Internet
- Although intolerant of heavy grazing, Johnsongrass is a good pasture grass and makes fair-quality hay when cut in the boot stage [170,191]. Livestock make moderate to good use of fresh Johnsongrass [87,91]. In a comparison of Texas range grasses, Johnsongrass showed greatest in-vitro digestibility (45%-69%, depending on the digestion media) of 5 grasses tested [116]. Dairy cattle in Alabama showed good weight gain and milk production on Johnsongrass pasture [87]. - Source: Internet
- The following description of Johnsongrass provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [72,93,94,96,111,149,176,194]). - Source: Internet
- Johnsongrass control involves several steps: 1) preventing seed from ripening and dispersing, 2) killing seedlings, 3) killing existing rhizomes, and 4) preventing growth of new rhizomes [9,80,84,127,180]. Control is most effective before plants have developed 5 leaves [101]. Detailed Johnsongrass control procedures and techniques are given in several publications [96,127,135]. - Source: Internet
- Johnsongrass produces seed about 2 months after initiation of spring rhizome expansion [151]. Even 1st-year Johnsongrass plants are capable of quick flowering and seed set: Plants in Mississippi initiated flowers 46 days after seedling emergence [125]. Bridges and Chandler [35] present a model for predicting Johnsongrass flowering under fluctuating field temperatures, with nitrogen fertilization, and with irrigation. Holshouser and Chandler [97,98] provide temperature-dependent models for predicting flowering, germination, rhizome bud break, and rhizome sprouting under field conditions. - Source: Internet
- In areas where Johnsongrass grows as a facultative annual, it shows variable ability to regenerate from seed. Johnsongrass annuals in rural-interface wildlands of southern Arizona rarely reproduce either from on-site seed or from rhizomes. Seed dispersed from adjacent agricultural lands provide continual sources of seed [61]. However, some annual populations in the northern portion of Johnsongrass’s range successfully reproduce from seed. In southern Ontario, northern Ohio, and northern New York, annual populations have larger leaves, inflorescences, and seeds compared to perennial Johnsongrass populations [198]. - Source: Internet
- Control: Although considerable information is available on controlling Johnsongrass in agricultural settings (e.g., see [9,80,84,127,180]), information on controlling Johnsongrass in rangelands, natural areas, and other wildlands is lacking. The following information on Johnsongrass control is extracted primarily from agricultural literature but may be applied to some wildland settings, particularly old fields. Research is needed on controlling Johnsongrass in wildland settings [135]. - Source: Internet
- Shade tolerance: Johnsongrass requires open sites and does not persist under closed canopies [77,190]. In a honey mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) Texas savanna, Johnsongrass associated with Texas wintergrass (Nassella lecotricha) in open areas but was not found under honey mesquite or other trees [190]. In Argentina grasslands, canopy removal increased Johnsongrass germination and establishment compared to closed-canopy sites [25]. - Source: Internet
- Hand-pulling Johnsongrass usually leaves rhizome pieces behind in the soil, stimulating sprouting. It is not an effective control method unless all rhizomes are removed or new sprouts are controlled [104,169]. Best results are obtained in early spring when soil in moist and rhizomes are least likely to break [169]. - Source: Internet
- Germination: Johnsongrass has 2 mechanisms of dormancy: mechanical dormancy imposed by the seed hull and seedcoat, which requires weathering or scarification to break; and chemical dormancy, which requires oxygen to break [100]. Diurnal fluctuations in temperature, afterripening, or both are needed to overcome both types of dormancy [26,26,64,99,181]. Seed from water-stressed plants is generally less dormant than seed from amply watered plants [23]. Benech and others [25] present a model predicting loss of seed dormancy and consequent seedling emergence based on soil temperature. - Source: Internet
- Cultural: Little information is available on cultural methods of control for Johnsongrass. An Arizona study using integrated pest management, including native bunchgrass plantings, showed some success in controlling Johnsongrass (see grazing in the Biological control section above). Additional studies incorporating cultural control of Johnsongrass are needed. - Source: Internet
- Fire scarification appears to have no effect on rate of seed germination, and very high temperatures kill Johnsongrass seed. In the laboratory, there were no significant differences in rates of germination between unheated Johnsongrass seed and seed heated to 200 ° F ( 90 °C) and 400 ° F (200 °C) for 120 seconds; mean germination rate was 52%. Mean germination rate dropped to 17% for seed exposed to 660 ° F (350 °C) and to 0% for seed exposed to 800 ° F ( 430 ° C) and 1000 ° F (538 ° C) for 120 seconds [131]. - Source: Internet
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